Economic Botany for 5th Semester students Botany Major NEP 2020
Index
Fig: Weeding process
Fig. CTC Tea
Fig: Tea plucking method
Fig: Withering of tea leaves
Fig. Orthodox Tea
Fig.Green tea
The indiscriminate extraction of water resources, above the rechargeable levels of the aquifers is known as over-exploitation of fresh water, meaning that more is taken out of the ground than can be sustainably replenished. Water which falls in the form of precipitation moves down into soil through rocks and gets accumulated as ground water. The layer of rock through which it parcolates is known as aquifers -- permiable water bearing rock and/ or sediment .Ground water found in two layers of soil : zone of aeration and zone of saturation. In the former soil gaps are filled by both of air and water,whereas in latter case it is filled by water only.
1. SRI Method of Rice Cultivation
2.Tea Plantation Process
3. CTC Tea Processing
4. Benefits of CTC tes
5.Orthodox Tea Processing
6. Benefits of Orthodox Tea
7. Difference between CTC Tea and orthodox tea
8. Green Tea
9.Paper manufacturing Process
System of Rice Intensification(SRI) Cultivation
1 Season
• Suitable for both Kharif and Rabi seasons with assured water supply and proper drainage.
2 Varities
•High- yielding varities (HYVs) ,hybrids, and long- duration varities showing good tillering ability are preferred.
3 Nursery Management
•3.1 Seed Rate
• Single seedling/hill: 7-8 kg/ ha
• Two seedlings/ hill : 12-15 kg/ ha
•3.2 Preparation of Nursery Area
• Prepare a 100 mt2 raised bed for 1 Ha of main field near a reliable water source.
• Lay plastic sheet or polythene gunny bags underneath to prevent roots from penetrating deep into the soil.
•3.3 Preparation of Soil Mixture
•Quantity Required: 4 m3 per 100 m2 nursery.
•Composition: 70% soil + 20% well-decomposed FYM/ biogas slurry/ pressmud + 10% rice hull.
•Fertilizers: Add 1.5 kg Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) or 2 kg 17:17:17 (NPK).
•Biofertilizers: Mix Azospirillum @5 kg /100 m2.
3.4 Seed Pre- germination
• Soak seeds in water for 24 hours, drain, and incubate for another 24 hours.
•Sow when sprouts and radicles reach 2--3mm length.
3.5 Sowing Method
• Place wooden frames( 0.5 m x 1 m x 0.04 m ) divided into 4 segments over the sheet/ leaf.
• Fill frames with the soil mixture and sow pre- germinated seeds at 90--100g/ mt2.
•Cover seeds with a 5 mm layer of dry soil, sprinkle water,and lift the frame to repeat across the area.
Fig: Nursery bed for SRI method
3.6 Watering & Nursery Care
• Water 2-3 times daily. Protect from heavy rain for the first 5 days.
• Maintain a thin layer of water from the 6th day onwards.
• Spray 0.5% Urea + 0.5% Zinc sulphate at 8--10;DAS if seedling growth is slow.
• Drain water 2 days prior to transplanting.
3.7 Lifting Seed Mat
• Lift the seed mats on 14th -15th day for field transfer.
4. Main Field Preparation & Transplanting
• Main Field Preparation
• Puddle, level thoroughly ,and mark a grid pattern of 25 cm x 25 cm ( 10 " x 10") using a marker.
Transplanting
• Transplant 14--15 days old young seedlings ( 1--2 seedlings/ hill).
• Plant at wider square spacing (10" x 10") shallowly without damaging root-seed complex.
• Complete transplanting within 30 minutes of pulling seedlings from the mat.
5 Irrigation Management
• Maintain saturated/ wet soil conditions without flooding for the first 10 days.
• Irrigate upto 0.5 cm depth only when hairline cracks appear on the soil surface ( Alternate Wetting and Drying).
6. Weed Management
• Run a mechanical motorized or manual rotary/ cono- weeder at 7-10 days interval ( forward and backward motion) to incorporate weeds and aerate roots.
• Manually remove weeds close to the rice hills.
7.Nutrient Management
• Emphasize organic sources: Incorporate green manures and FYM during main field preparation to enhance soil microbial activity.
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Tea Cultivation & Processing
Tea Cultivation
Common name : Tea
Scientific name: Camellia sinensis L.O.Kuntze
Family: Camelliacae or Theaceae
1.Soil & Climate:
Well drained soil with high amount of organic matter, soil pH 4.5 to 5.5 . Altitude: 1000 mt to 2500 mt and temperature: 20°C to 27°C.
Nursery soil:
Well drained & deep loan with pH 4.5 to 4.8.
Pre-treatment of rooting medium:
Pre-treatment is done to reduce soil pH used in nursery:
• Nursery bed: 1 mt width, 8 cm height and length : convenient.
• Soil bed is drenched with 2% solution of Aluminium sulphate @ 20 lot/ 3.5 sq mt .
• Another layer of soil of 8 cm is spread over the bed again and derench with equal amount of water for twice.
Preparation of sleeves:
•Polythene sleeve size: 150--200 gauge, 20 cm width & 30--45 cm long.
•There must be drainage holes at the bottom.
•3/4th of the sleeves is filled with 1:3 soil and sand mixture and remaining 2/4th is by 2:1 sand and soil mixture.
• Over shed is required, sleeves staked in rows.
2.Selection of Mother Bush:
• Select a heathy, high yielding & vigorously growing bush. Provide the selected bush with 40 gm young tea mixture alongside a 60.90 NK mixture annually for 5 years.
• Before cutting following mixture is provided:
(i) 0.5% ALSO 4 + 1% MgSO 4 ( before 3 weeks),
(ii) 2% ZnSO 4 ( before 2 weeks), and
(iii) 1% urea ( before 1 week).
3.Cutting:
•Time: April - May and August - September.
• Semi hard-wood cutting with one leaf and an internode with a slant cut at the bottom.
4. Planting of cutting:
• Cutting are planted in the prepared sleeves , soil pressed to avoid airspace and watered and kept under shade.
• After 10-12 weeks rootings appeared.
•On 10-15th day of rooting shades removed.
5. Manuring of Nursery:
•30 gm / 10 litre of water of the following is applied over 4 sq mt area:
Ammonium phosphate (20:20) : 35 parts by wt
Potassium sulphate. : 15 parts by wt
Or
MOP. 12 arts by wt
Magnesium sulphate. 15 parts by wt
Zink sulphate. 3 parts by wt
6.Hardening of the cuttings:
•4-6 months old young cuttings are exposed in sunlight for 4--6 weeks @few hours / day , then gradually time extended.
7.Planting :
•Season: May- June or September - October
•Sleeves opened lengthwise without hampering the roots.
• Single Hedge System: 1.20 x 0.75 mt spacing required @ 10,800 plants/ ha.
•Double Hedge System : 1.35 x 0.75 x0.75 mt spacing required @ 13,200 plants/ ha.
8 Irrigation:
During summer subsoil irrigation is done for young seedlings.
9. Manuring:
•After 2 months Rock phosphate is applied once a year @ 80-100 kg/ ha at 15-35 cm depth upto the first pruning and thereafter once in two years.
• For first 3 years 2:3 ratio of N: K is applied , thereafter at 1:1 ratio.
Manuring is done before the onset of monsoon.
10. Weeding:
Forbicot weeds are controlled by spraying Glyphosate 1.75 lit + Koaline 2 lit + 2 kg eetting agent in 450 lit water following Gramoxonev500 ml in 200 lit water to control dicot weeds.
11. Centering:
•After 3-5 months centering is done to inducev more laterals .
• Main leader stem is cut , leaving 8-10 mature leaves.
12 Tipping:
First tipping is done at the height of 35 cm and second tipping at 60 cm from ground level.
13 Pruning:
•Season: April - May or August - September
•Pruning interval: (Elevation in feet/1000)+1
•Types of pruning:
(i) Rejuvination : The whole bush is prunned near the ground level less than 30 cm.
(ii) Hard: At the height of 30-40 cm.
(iii)Medium: At the height of about 60 cm.
(iv)Light: At the height of 65 cm.
(v)Skiffing:A removal of only the top 5-8 cm new growth.
14 Shade regulation :
•8-10 mt high shade trees are provided to prevent the plants from heavy rains.
• Before monsoon erect branches of shade trees are removed.
15. Plant protection
Tea plants are susceptible to Scales, Phassus borer, Thrips, Aphids, Red spider mite, Blister blight ,etc. hence, proper control measures is required.
16. Harvesting:
•Plucking starts when the plants attain 3 years of age.
•Season : March- May at the 1 week interval and 10-14 days interval during the other months.
• Laen period: 10-15 days interval
• Rush period : 7-10 days interval.
27 Yield : 10t/ ha green leaves.
(Source: Tamil Nadu Tea Plantation Corporation and Tea Board of India: TNAU Agritech Portal : Horticulture)
CTC Tea - a Black Tea
Sir William McKercher, a tea planter in Assam , developed the CTC ( Crush,Tear ,Curl) method in the 1930s . The inovation of CTC process has made tea production more efficient and consistent.
The Process of Making CTC Tea
CTC process is described 👇
1.Plucking: Careful hand plucking of two leaves and a bud ( the most tender part of the tea plant) is the first step of the CTC process.
2. Withering: Next leaves are spread out at 20 cm thick layer in withering though under controlled air (sunlight or fans) to reduce the moisture content by about 50% using controlled airflow and temperature ( 25-30°C). It helps in concentrating the flavours and softening of the leaves.
3. Crushing,Tearing,and Curling: Then the withered leaves are fed into the CTC machine, where they are crushed, torn, and curled into small ,hard pellets which ensures a consistent and strong brew. Rolling is done for 30-120 minutes according to leaves condition and temperature. It breaks the cell walls of leaves, which initiates the oxidation process. During this process temperature is maintained below 35°C .
4 . Fermentation :The processed leaves are then spread out in a controlled environment in separate fermentation room to oxidise for developing the rich , robust flavour of tea. During fermentation phase, enzymes react with oxygen to develop colour and flavour of tea. In present days Continuous Fermenting Machine (CFM) is widely used. During this the tray are fed up to 15 cm depth with rolled leaf. The deep copper colour of tea indicates the end of the fermentation process.
5. Drying ( Kill-green): The oxidised leaves are then dried by hot air ( firing) often at 80°C to 90°C to halt the fermentation process by inactivating polyphenol oxidise enzyme and reduce the moisture content to about 3--5%. Drying locks in the flavour and ensures long shelf life of tea. This can be done through pan-firing, steaming, or baking.
6. Sorting and Grading: At last ,the dried tea granules are shifted using conveyor beltand graded by particle size and quality. Mechanical sievers and air classifieds separate tea by size and grades as:
"Broken , "Fannings", or "Dust".
The general grades are:
(i) Broken Pekoe: Medium sized particles, often used in blends,
(ii) Broken Orange Pekoe: Finer than Broken Pekoe, offering a smoother taste, and
(iii) Pekoe Fannings: Small tea particles , frequently used in tea bags.
7.Packaging:
Finally ,the sorted tea is packed into bags , cartons or bulk containers under controlled conditions to preserve freshness.
Benefits of CTC Tea:
1. CTC Tea is a good antioxidant and boost the immune system.
2 . While passing through the rollers the tea leaf cells crushed and ruptured which results in good flavour and aroma of the tea .
Orthodox Tea
Manufacturing Process: Orthodox Tea is produced through the following six stages:
1. Plucking: The finest tender leaves , top two leaves and bud, are plucked manually by hand ( hand plucking).
2.Withering: Withering is done by spreading leaves thinly on withering thoughs or jute/ wire mash for 12 to 17 hours to reduce 35-40% of moisture .
3. Rolling: Next the withered leaves are rolled by traditional or mechanical rollers into twisted, curled or small pellets maintaining pH 4.5--5, temperature below 30°C and Moisture around 55% .
4. Roll- Breaking and Green leaf shifting: •Then the leaf mass is compressed into lumps.A combined roll- breaker and sifter machine breaks these up, cools the leaf, aerated the mass ,and sieves out particles by size and seperates for uniform oxidation.
• The shifted leaves are then spread out in thin layers on tables or perforated trays to continue oxidising.
5. Oxidation/ Fermentation: It runs for 2-4 hours. The temperature and humidity of fermentation room is kept same as the environment leaves sighted into after rolling.
6. Drying: After oxidation leaves dried using sun drying, baking or by hot air dryers in a drying chamber. It runs at 90°C -- 120°C for 20 -- 25 minutes . This, the final moisture content reduced to 2--3% .
7. Sorting and Grading: After drying , leaves are sorted with mechanical sifters & sievers . The whole leaf grades ( like TGFOP) are considered as the highest quality.
Benefits of Orthodox Tea:
1. It is a good antioxidant rich in Theaflavin and thearubigins.
2. The polyphenols of orthodox tea support metabolism and aid weight management.
3. The moderate caffein of orthodox tea enhance mental alertness.
4. It promotes gut health and aids digestion.
5.It lowers LDL cholesterol and promotes heart health.
6. Catechins and flavonoids of orthodox tea improve immunity.
7.Demerits: Orthodox Tea creates dehydration,so moderate consumption is recommended.
What is Green Tea?
Green tea is unfermented or un-oxidised tea processed in such a way that oxidation of green leaf polyphenols is prevented. It is rich in polyphenols , amino acids, Theaflavin ( TF), Flavanols, Catechins ,caffeins and volatile flavour components . It is originated in China.
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Paper Manufacturing Process
Industrial paper making is a continuous industrial workflow which converts cellulose pulp into finished paper sheets through the following steps:
Raw material preparation:
Raw materials like wood pulp or recycled paper are sorted, cleaned , and fed into the bpulping system.
Pulping
(i) Raw materials are mixed with water and broken down into fibres using high consistency pulpers at 14-18% consistency.
(ii) Thus a slurry - like mixture is formed.
Cleaning & Screening
Contaminants ( plastics, staples, sand) are removed through pressure screens and centrifugal cleaners.
Bleaching
In this process either residual lignin is removed or modified by using multi- stage processes like Elemental Chlorine Free ( ECF) or Totally Chlorine Free ( TCF) sequence bleaching to dissolve lignin without weakening cellulose fibres.
Refining
Fibres are treated in disc refiners to develop bonding strength and achive target fareness.
Formation of Sheet
(i)The pulp is then spread evenly across a moving mesh screen of a large paper machine to drain away water and fibres to bond together.
(ii) Refined stock is roughly 99% water and 1% fiber when it reaches the wire.
(iii) Gravity and vaccum drainage pull water through the mesh while cellulose fibres interlock into a continuous web.
Pressing
The newly formed sheet passes through 2 to 4 press nips between rolls and absorbent felts to remove excess water and enhance density.
Drying
At 90° C to 110 °C dryer cylinders ( 30 to 60 cylinders per section) steam heated to remove 92 to 96 % moisture content resulting in a sturdy , dry sheet of paper.
Calendering
The sheet passes between calender rolls under controlled pressure, to density surface, thickness and smoothness.
Cutting & Finishing
(i) The finished sheet winds onto parent reels of 2.5 m to 3.5 m diameter and 5 to 20 tonnes.
(ii) Slitter- reminders cut the parent reel into smaller customer sheets.
(iii) Final reels are wrapped,palletised and shipped.
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Over Exploitation of Water : Causes; consequences & Solutolions
The process of precipitation replenishing the ground water supply is called recharge.This ground water remains in a constant motion. About 5.97 quintillion gallon of ground water reside in the upper 2 km of earth's surface.
Ground water can be extracted through Wells or bubbles up naturally through a spring and discharged in lakes or rivers to maintain the level of surface water. It is used for drinking, agriculture and recently groundwater levels have fallen in faster rate due to the diversion of above ground water, excessive extraction of water for irrigation and other uses.
Causes of over-exploitation:
(i) World population is ever-increasing, hence pressure on agriculture is continuing. More than 75% of fresh water is used in agriculture
(ii)IIlicit collection of water through illegal wells.
(iii) Extraction of water by machines and pumps.
Consequences :
Depletion of ground water results in the increase of pumping cost, dry up of wells and rivers, intrusion of saline water in the coastal aquifers.
Solution
Use of waste water and ponding of excess river flows . Efficient operation on irrigation system, sustainable coservation of soil and water, changes of cropping pattern,etc are the important measures to replenishment of the ground water.
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