Economic Botany for 5th Semester students Botany Major NEP 2020
Section A
Index
Fig: Weeding process
Photograph: Rice nursery
Photo: 2-3 cm water flooding
Photo: Hand pulling of weeds in rice field.
Photograph: Rice harvesting
Fig. CTC Tea
Fig: Tea plucking method
Fig: Withering of tea leaves
Fig. Orthodox Tea
Fig.Green tea
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(i) In India about 70% of paper production is based on recovered paper.
There are 3 different groups of pulping methods:
Fig. Chemical Pulping in paper industry
Fig. Rubber Plantation in Tripura
Soil and Climate
Fig. Tapping of rubber tree
Fig. Position of gotter and latex cup
Step -by-Step RSS Production Process
Image: Rolling and Ribbing with roller
. Image of surgical gloves
. Image: Automobile tyres
The indiscriminate extraction of water resources, above the rechargeable levels of the aquifers is known as over-exploitation of fresh water, meaning that more is taken out of the ground than can be sustainably replenished. Water which falls in the form of precipitation moves down into soil through rocks and gets accumulated as ground water. The layer of rock through which it parcolates is known as aquifers -- permiable water bearing rock and/ or sediment .Ground water found in two layers of soil : zone of aeration and zone of saturation. In the former soil gaps are filled by both of air and water,whereas in latter case it is filled by water only.
1. Rice Cultivation
• SRI Method of Rice Cultivation
•Conventional Process of Rice Cultivation
2. Tea Plantation & Processing
•Tea Plantation Process
•CTC Tea Processing
•Benefits of CTC tea
•Orthodox Tea Processing
•Benefits of Orthodox Tea
•Difference between CTC Tea and Orthodox tea
•Green Tea
•Model questions and answers ( Tea cultivation and processing)
3.Paper Production
•Major raw materials for paper pulp
• Pulping Process
4. Rubber Plantation
• Plantation Method
• Rubber Tapping process
• Rubber Latex to RSS Rubber Processing
• Questions and Answers
Section B
Traditional and Ethnobotanical Plants
1 Ram Basak/ Tita Basak (Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus)
System of Rice Intensification(SRI) Cultivation
1 Season
• Suitable for both Kharif and Rabi seasons with assured water supply and proper drainage.
2 Varities
•High- yielding varities (HYVs) ,hybrids, and long- duration varities showing good tillering ability are preferred.
3 Nursery Management
•3.1 Seed Rate
• Single seedling/hill: 7-8 kg/ ha
• Two seedlings/ hill : 12-15 kg/ ha
•3.2 Preparation of Nursery Area
• Prepare a 100 mt2 raised bed for 1 Ha of main field near a reliable water source.
• Lay plastic sheet or polythene gunny bags underneath to prevent roots from penetrating deep into the soil.
•3.3 Preparation of Soil Mixture
•Quantity Required: 4 m3 per 100 m2 nursery.
•Composition: 70% soil + 20% well-decomposed FYM/ biogas slurry/ pressmud + 10% rice hull.
•Fertilizers: Add 1.5 kg Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) or 2 kg 17:17:17 (NPK).
•Biofertilizers: Mix Azospirillum @5 kg /100 m2.
3.4 Seed Pre- germination
• Soak seeds in water for 24 hours, drain, and incubate for another 24 hours.
•Sow when sprouts and radicles reach 2--3mm length.
3.5 Sowing Method
• Place wooden frames( 0.5 m x 1 m x 0.04 m ) divided into 4 segments over the sheet/ leaf.
• Fill frames with the soil mixture and sow pre- germinated seeds at 90--100g/ mt2.
•Cover seeds with a 5 mm layer of dry soil, sprinkle water,and lift the frame to repeat across the area.
Fig: Nursery bed for SRI method
3.6 Watering & Nursery Care
• Water 2-3 times daily. Protect from heavy rain for the first 5 days.
• Maintain a thin layer of water from the 6th day onwards.
• Spray 0.5% Urea + 0.5% Zinc sulphate at 8--10;DAS if seedling growth is slow.
• Drain water 2 days prior to transplanting.
3.7 Lifting Seed Mat
• Lift the seed mats on 14th -15th day for field transfer.
4. Main Field Preparation & Transplanting
• Main Field Preparation
• Puddle, level thoroughly ,and mark a grid pattern of 25 cm x 25 cm ( 10 " x 10") using a marker.
Transplanting
• Transplant 14--15 days old young seedlings ( 1--2 seedlings/ hill).
• Plant at wider square spacing (10" x 10") shallowly without damaging root-seed complex.
• Complete transplanting within 30 minutes of pulling seedlings from the mat.
5 Irrigation Management
• Maintain saturated/ wet soil conditions without flooding for the first 10 days.
• Irrigate upto 0.5 cm depth only when hairline cracks appear on the soil surface ( Alternate Wetting and Drying).
6. Weed Management
• Run a mechanical motorized or manual rotary/ cono- weeder at 7-10 days interval ( forward and backward motion) to incorporate weeds and aerate roots.
• Manually remove weeds close to the rice hills.
7.Nutrient Management
• Emphasize organic sources: Incorporate green manures and FYM during main field preparation to enhance soil microbial activity.
Conventional Rice Cultivation
Season Local Sowing. Harvest
name time time
Kharif Aus May- June Sept-Oct
Rabi Aman June-July Nov-Dec
Summer Boro Nov-Dec March-April
Or
Spring
Temperature & Climate
(i) Temperature: 25°C to 30°C
(ii) Warm and humid weather.
(iii) Rainfall: ~100 to 150 cm or more annually.
(iv) The irrigation enables cultivation in low rainfall areas.
Soil
(i) Fertile alluvial soil with good water holding capacity.
(ii) Level or gently sloping field .
Cultivation methods
(i) Transplanted puddled Low land rice
Nursery Management
(a) Wet Nursery
• Land Area : 800 m2 for raising seedlings for one hactare.
Seed Rate: 30 kg for long duration,
40 kg for medium duration
60 kg for short duration varities
20 kg for hybrids
Seed Bed & sowing:
• 2.5 mt x 8-10 mt; 30 cm wide channels all around.
• Collect the puddled soil from the channel and spread on the seed Bed to make the bed level high.
• Level the surface to drain water into the channel.
• Sow the sprouted seeds uniformly on the seed Bed, having thin film of water in the nursery.
(b) Dry Nursery
• Land Area : 800 m2/ha for seedlings raising
Seed Rate
30 kg for long duration
40 kg for medium duration
60 kg for short duration varities
20 kg for hybrids
Seed Bed & sowing
• Dry ploughed sandy-loamy soil field.
• 1 to 1.5 m width, length convenient with channels around . If soil is clayey, then seed bed must be raised.
• Dry seeds sowed, covered with a mixture of sand and powred FYM.
• Irrigation is done to wet the soil to saturation.
• Optimum age of transplantation: 4th leaf stage.
Main Field Preparation
Tillage
• Flood the field 1-2 days before ploughing and allow water to soak in. Keep the land surface covered with water.
• Keep the water depth of 2.5 cm during puddling.
• After puddling level the land.
Manuring
Organic manures are added 10 days prior to transplanting :
• Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost or green leaf manure @ 6.25 t/ ha.
• If green manure is raised @20kg/ha in situ incoporate to a depth of 15 cm using tractor.
• Add 22 kg urea/ ha at the time of first puddling.
Bioferlizer:
•2 kg Azospirillum + 2 kg Phosphobacteria , or
• 4 kg Azophos + 25 kg FYM + 25 kg soil / ha,
and
• 2.5 kg Pseudomonas fluorescence + 50 kg FYM + 25 kg soil uniformly broadcast before transplanting.
Inorganic fertilizer
• Apply 25 kg Zinc sulphate + 50 kg sand/ ha just before transplanting.
Optimum age of seedlings
18-22 days for short duration Varities
25-30 days for medium duration varities
30-40 days for long duration varities
Seedling distance
Spacing between seedlings sowing varies upon soil fertility and crop duration:
Soil Duration Spacing Hills/m2
Fertility (cm)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Low/ medium
Short. 15x10. 66
Medium. 20x 10. 50
Long. 30 x 15 33
High. Short. 20 x 10. 50
Medium 20 x 15 33
Long 20x 20. 25
------------------------------------------------------------------------
•Transplant 2-3 seedlings/ hill.
• Shallow planting(3 cm) ensures quick establishment and reduced tillers, more than 5 cm reduce tillers and delayed establishment.
• Minimum row spacing is 20 cm and perform line planting.
Irrigation/ Water Management
• Puddling and levelling minimizes water requirment.
• A shallow depth of 2 cm of water is standard at the time of transplanting.
• Maintain 2 cm of water upto 7th day of transplanting.
• Cyclic 5 cm submergence has to be continued throughout the croping.
• During panicle initiation , booting, heading, and flowering stages the irrigation interval should not exceed the stipulated time so that moisture content must be saturated.
• Provide adequate drainage facilities to drain excess water.
• Stop irrigation 25 days before harvesting.
Weeding
Manual weeding
(1) Hand pulling:
•Removing weeds by hand using khurpi, hoe,spade or socks.
• 1-2 times between 15-40 days after transplanting.
(2) Mechanical weeding
• Passing a rotary rotary or push weeder between crop rows to aerate the soil and bury young weed.
(3) Chemical Control:
• Apply herbicide like Pretilachlorbor Butachlor around 3 days after transplanting ( DAT) mixed with dry sand to prevent emergence of weed.
• Next use Bispyribac sodium or Metsulfuronmethyl + Chlorimuron-;methyl for later stage weed emergence.
(4) Cultural Control
• Summer ploughing and puddling bury weed seeds and vegetative propagule.
• 5-7cm depth water flooding suppressbweed germination
Harvesting
The harvest is done when the panicles mature and grains turn golden-yellow.
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Tea Cultivation & Processing
Tea Cultivation
Common name : Tea
Scientific name: Camellia sinensis L.O.Kuntze
Family: Camelliacae or Theaceae
1.Soil - Climate -Topography:
Well drained deep, acidic ,fertile, loamy soil with high amount of organic matter .
Soil pH 4.5 to 5.5 .
Porous soil is essential as stagnant water damages root system.
Altitude: Upto 2000 mt , on sloped hillsides or elevated plateaus to avoid waterlogging.
Temperature: 20°C to 27°C. Temperatures below 13°C or above 30°C causes plant stress and dormancy.
Rain fall : 1500-2500 mm, evenly distributed throughout the year ; dry spells impede shoot growth, while stagnant water harms roots.
Humidity: Required high relative humidity of 70% to 90% with frequent morning mist or light shower.
Nursery soil:
Well drained & deep loam acidic soil with pH 4.5 to 4.8.
Pre-treatment of rooting medium:
Pre-treatment is done to reduce soil pH used in nursery:
• Nursery bed: 1 mt width, 8 cm height and length : convenient.
• Soil bed is derenched with 2% solution of Aluminium sulphate @ 20 lit/ 3.5 sq mt .
• Another layer of soil of 8 cm is spread over the bed again and derench with equal amount of water for twice.
Preparation of sleeves:
•Polythene sleeve size: 150--200 gauge, 20 cm width & 30--45 cm long.
•There must be drainage holes at the bottom.
•3/4th of the sleeves is filled with 1:3 soil and sand mixture and remaining 1/4th is by 2:1 sand and soil mixture.
• Over shed is required, sleeves staked in rows.
2.Selection of Mother Bush:
• Select a heathy, high yielding & vigorously growing bush. Provide the selected bush with 40 gm young tea mixture alongside a 60.90 NK mixture annually for 5 years.
• Before cutting following mixture is provided:
(i) 0.5% AlSO 4 + 1% MgSO 4 ( before 3 weeks),
(ii) 2% ZnSO 4 ( before 2 weeks), and
(iii) 1% urea ( before 1 week).
3.Cutting:
•Time: April - May and August - September.
• Semi hard-wood cutting with one leaf and an internode with a slant cut at the bottom.
4. Planting of cutting:
• Cutting are planted in the prepared sleeves , soil pressed to avoid airspace and watered and kept under shade.
• After 10-12 weeks rootings appeared.
•On 10-15th day of rooting shades removed.
5. Manuring of Nursery:
•30 gm / 10 litre of water of the following is applied over 4 sq mt area:
Ammonium phosphate (20:20) : 35 parts by wt
Potassium sulphate. : 15 parts by wt
Or
MOP. 12 arts by wt
Magnesium sulphate. 15 parts by wt
Zink sulphate. 3 parts by wt
6.Hardening of the cuttings:
•4-6 months old young cuttings are exposed in sunlight for 4--6 weeks @few hours / day , then gradually time extended.
7.Planting :
•Season: May- June or September - October
•Sleeves opened lengthwise without hampering the roots.
• Single Hedge System: 1.20 x 0.75 mt spacing required @ 10,800 plants/ ha.
•Double Hedge System : 1.35 x 0.75 x0.75 mt spacing required @ 13,200 plants/ ha.
8 Irrigation:
During summer subsoil irrigation is done for young seedlings.
9. Manuring:
•After 2 months of tea plantation Rock phosphate is applied once a year @ 80-100 kg/ ha at 15-35 cm depth upto the first pruning and thereafter once in two years.
• For first 3 years 2:3 ratio of N: K is applied , thereafter at 1:1 ratio.
Manuring is done before the onset of monsoon.
10. Weeding:
Forbicot weeds are controlled by spraying Glyphosate 1.75 lit + Kaoline 2 lit + 2 kg wetting agent in 450 lit. of water following Gramoxone 500 ml in 200 lit. water to control dicot weeds.
11. Centering:
•After 3-5 months centering is done to induce more laterals .
• Main leader stem is cut , leaving 8-10 mature leaves.
12 Tipping:
First tipping is done at the height of 35 cm and second tipping at 60 cm from ground level.
13 Pruning:
Regular cutting back of tea bushes maintains flat-topped "plucking table" at accessible height and stimulates continuous vegetative growth of new shoots.
•Season: April - May or August - September
•Pruning interval: (Elevation in feet/1000)+1
•Types of pruning:
(i) Rejuvination : The whole bush is prunned near the ground level less than 30 cm.
(ii) Hard: At the height of 30-40 cm.
(iii)Medium: At the height of about 60 cm.
(iv)Light: At the height of 65 cm.
(v)Skiffing:A removal of only the top 5-8 cm new growth.
14 Shade regulation :
Shade trees ( e.g., Albizia) are planted alongside tea bushes to reduce sunlight, lower leaf temperature, reduce wind velocity,and supply leaf mulch.
•8-10 mt high shade trees are provided to prevent the plants from heavy rains.
• Before monsoon erect branches of shade trees are removed.
15. Plant protection / pest control
Tea plants are susceptible to Scales, Phassus borer, Thrips, Aphids, Red spider mite, Blister blight ,etc. hence, proper control measures is required ( spraying organic or chemical pesticides).
16. Harvesting:
•Plucking starts when the plants attain 3 years of age.
•Season : March- May at the 1 week interval and 10-14 days interval during the other months.
• Laen period: 10-15 days interval
• Rush period : 7-10 days interval.
27 Yield : 10t/ ha green leaves.
(Source: Tamil Nadu Tea Plantation Corporation and Tea Board of India: TNAU Agritech Portal : Horticulture)
CTC Tea - a Black Tea
Sir William McKercher, a tea planter in Assam , developed the CTC ( Crush,Tear ,Curl) method in the 1930s . The inovation of CTC process has made tea production more efficient and consistent.
The Process of Making CTC Tea
CTC process is described 👇
1.Plucking: Careful hand plucking of two leaves and a bud ( the most tender part of the tea plant) is the first step of the CTC process.
2. Withering: Next leaves are spread out at 20 cm thick layer in withering though under controlled air (sunlight or fans) to reduce the moisture content by about 50% using controlled airflow and temperature ( 25-30°C). It helps in concentrating the flavours and softening of the leaves.
3. Crushing,Tearing,and Curling: Then the withered leaves are fed into the CTC machine, where they are crushed, torn, and curled into small ,hard pellets which ensures a consistent and strong brew. Rolling is done for 30-120 minutes according to leaves condition and temperature. It breaks the cell walls of leaves, which initiates the oxidation process. During this process temperature is maintained below 35°C .
4 . Fermentation :The processed leaves are then spread out in a controlled environment in separate fermentation room to oxidise for developing the rich , robust flavour of tea. During fermentation phase, enzymes react with oxygen to develop colour and flavour of tea. In present days Continuous Fermenting Machine (CFM) is widely used. During this the tray are fed up to 15 cm depth with rolled leaf. The deep copper colour of tea indicates the end of the fermentation process.
5. Drying ( Kill-green): The oxidised leaves are then dried by hot air ( firing) often at 80°C to 90°C to halt the fermentation process by inactivating polyphenol oxidise enzyme and reduce the moisture content to about 3--5%. Drying locks in the flavour and ensures long shelf life of tea. This can be done through pan-firing, steaming, or baking.
6. Sorting and Grading: At last ,the dried tea granules are shifted using conveyor beltand graded by particle size and quality. Mechanical sievers and air classifieds separate tea by size and grades as:
"Broken , "Fannings", or "Dust".
The general grades are:
(i) Broken Pekoe: Medium sized particles, often used in blends,
(ii) Broken Orange Pekoe: Finer than Broken Pekoe, offering a smoother taste, and
(iii) Pekoe Fannings: Small tea particles , frequently used in tea bags.
7.Packaging:
Finally ,the sorted tea is packed into bags , cartons or bulk containers under controlled conditions to preserve freshness.
Benefits of CTC Tea:
1. CTC Tea is a good antioxidant and boost the immune system.
2 . While passing through the rollers the tea leaf cells crushed and ruptured which results in good flavour and aroma of the tea .
Orthodox Tea
Manufacturing Process: Orthodox Tea is produced through the following six stages:
1. Plucking: The finest tender leaves , top two leaves and bud, are plucked manually by hand ( hand plucking).
2.Withering: Withering is done by spreading the leaves on trays and exposed to warm air to reduce moisture content from 75-80% down to 60% , making the leaves flexible.
3. Rolling: Next the withered leaves are rolled by traditional or mechanical rollers into twisted, curled or small pellets maintaining pH 4.5--5, temperature below 30°C and Moisture around 55% .
4. Roll- Breaking and Green leaf shifting: •Then the leaf mass is compressed into lumps.A combined roll- breaker and sifter machine breaks these up, cools the leaf, aerated the mass ,and sieves out particles by size and seperates for uniform oxidation.
• The shifted leaves are then spread out in thin layers on tables or perforated trays to continue oxidising.
5. Oxidation/ Fermentation: It runs for 2-4 hours. Leaves are kept in a humid , cool environment ( moisture content 55% ; temperature below 30°C).
Polyphenol oxidase enzyme react with oxygen to turn Catechins into Theaflavins and Thearubigins to develop the tea colour and rich flavor.
6. Drying: After oxidation leaves dried using sun drying, baking or by hot air dryers in a drying chamber. It runs at 90°C -- 120°C for 20 -- 25 minutes . Thus, the final moisture content reduced to 2--3%
7. Sorting and Grading: After drying , leaves are sorted with mechanical sifters & sievers . The whole leaf grades ( like TGFOP) are considered as the highest quality.
Benefits of Orthodox Tea:
1. It is a good antioxidant rich in Theaflavin and thearubigins.
2. The polyphenols of orthodox tea support metabolism and aid weight management.
3. The moderate caffein of orthodox tea enhance mental alertness.
4. It promotes gut health and aids digestion.
5.It lowers LDL cholesterol and promotes heart health.
6. Catechins and flavonoids of orthodox tea improve immunity.
7.Demerits: Orthodox Tea creates dehydration,so moderate consumption is recommended.
What is Green Tea?
Green tea is unfermented or un-oxidised tea processed in such a way that oxidation of green leaf polyphenols is prevented. It is rich in polyphenols , amino acids, Theaflavin ( TF), Flavanols, Catechins ,caffeins and volatile flavour components . It is originated in China.
Model Questions with Answers
Pattern 1+1+4=6
Question 1
(a) What is the Scientific name of the Tea plant?
(b)Name the process used to halt oxidation during green tea processing.
(c) Describe four primary steps in the Orthodox method of black tea processing.
1+1+4=6
Answer:
(a) Camellia sinensis
(b) Fixing or Kill-Green, done via steaming or pan- firing.
(c) Four primary steps of Orthodox Tea Processing:
Withering :
(i) Freshly plucked leaves spread on trays and exposed to warm air.
( ii) It reduces 25% to 40% moisture content.
(iii) Withering makes the leaves flexible.
Rolling
(i) Withered leaves rolled by traditional or mechanical rollers into twisted, curled or small pellets.
(ii) pH maintained at 4.5 to 5.
(iii) Temperature maintained below 30°C , and moisture content around 55% .
Oxidation/Fermentation
(i) Time : 3-4 hours
(ii) Environment: moisture content 55%, temperature below 30°C.
(iii) During fermentation of tea leaves enzyme Phosphoenol Oxidase reacts with oxygen to turn Catechins into Theaflavins and Thearubigins to develop the tea colour and flavour.
Drying/Firing
(i) Drying performed by sun drying, baking or by hot air dryers in a drying chamber.
(ii) It runs at 90°C to 120°C for 20-25 minutes.
(iii) The final moisture content reduced to 2%to 3%.
Question 2
(a) What is the full form of CTC in tea processing? 1
(b) Name the soil pH for tea cultivation. 1
(c) Discuss the ideal environmental conditions /climate (temperature, rainfall and topography) necessary for successful tea cultivation. 4
Answers:
(a) CTC= Crush, Tear,Curl
(b) Soil pH
Nursery soil pH: 4.5--4.8
Crop field soil pH: 4.5--5.5
(c) Environment conditions for successful tea cultivation:
Temperature 20°C to 27°C ; below 13°C or above 30° C causes plant stress and dormancy.
Rainfall 1500 mm to 2500 mm, dry spells impede shoot growth, while stagnant water harms root.
Humidity Required high relative humidity of 70% to 90% a d frequent morning mists or light shower.
Sunlight: At least 5 hours of daily sunlight for healthy photosynthesis.
Topography Altitude upto 2000 mt , on sloped hillsides or elevated plateaus to avoid waterlogging as stagnant water harms roots of tea plants.
Pattern (2+4=6)
Question 3
(a) What is tipping? State it's purpose.2
(b) Differentiate between Orthodox Tea and CTC tea manufacturing. 4
Answer
(a)Tipping:
The practice of cutting or nipping off the growing tips of primary tea shoot at a set height is called tipping.
Purpose of Tipping:
Tipping stops vertical growth ,built a flat harvesting surface ,and encourage lateral branching.
(b) Difference between manufacturing process of Orthodox Tea and CTC Tea
Question 4
(a) What is "plucking" in tea estates, and what constitutes a " fine pluck" ? 2
Answer
Plucking is the manual or mechanical harvesting of tender young shoots from tea bushes.
A fine pluck consists of gathering " two leaves and a bud" , which provides the ideal balance of chemical compunds for producing high- quality tea.
(b) Describe the key cultural management practices required in tea garden ( Pruning, Shade management,soil care and weed &: pest control). 4
Question 5
(a) What is the systematic position of the tea plant according to Bentham and Hooker's system (or modern APG IV)? 2
Answer:
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledonous)
Order: Theales (APG IV places it in Ericales)
Family: Theaceae
Genus: Camellia
Species: Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze
(b) Differentiate between the two primary botanical varieties of Camellia sinensis used in commercial cultivation. 2+2=4
Answer:
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (China variety): Characterized by a multi-stemmed shrub habit, smaller dark-green leaves (4 to 8 cm) with a leathery texture, high cold-hardiness, and slow growth. Ideal for producing green and white teas.
Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Assam variety): Characterized by a single-stem tree habit, larger leaves (up to 20 cm or more), light green color, faster growth, and sensitivity to frost. Ideal for robust black teas.
Note: A third natural variant, Camellia sinensis var. cambodiensis (Cambod variety), is characterized by upright growth and light green leaves with serrated margins, often used for natural hybridization.
Question 6
(a) Explain the edaphic and climatic factors critical for the optimal growth of Camellia sinensis. 2
Answer:
Soil Requirements:
Tea requires deep, well-drained, friable soils rich in organic matter/humus. Most importantly, it is an acidophilic plant, thriving best in a strongly acidic soil pH range of 4.5 to 5.5.
Climate:
It flourishes in tropical to subtropical climates with warm, moist, and frost-free conditions.
Rainfall:
An annual precipitation of 1,200 to 2,500 mm, evenly distributed throughout the year, is ideal.
Temperature:
Optimum thermal range is 13°C to 30°C. Extremes outside this range suppress photosynthetic efficiency.
(b) What is the botanical significance of "pruning" and "plucking" in managing tea plantations?
2+2=4
Answer:
Pruning:
Regularly cutting back the canopy maintaining a plucking table height of about 1 meter.
Botanical Significance
(1) Breaking Apical Dominance:
Pruning breaks apical dominance, stimulates lateral bud break, increases vegetative flush production, and prevents the plant from maturing into a tall tree.
(2) Maintanence of Plucking table:
Pruning keeps canopy at a waist- high level (60-100 cm ) for efficient harvesting and maximum light coverage.
(3) Rejuvinates Wood:
Pruning removes older, suberized wood and stimulates the vascular cambium to generate fresh ,highly active xylem and phloem , restoring optimal water and nutrient transport.
Plucking:
Plucking is the periodic harvesting of the terminal bud and the adjacent two youngest leaves (the "two leaves and a bud" standard).
Botanical Significance
(1) Sustaining Continuous Vegetative Phase:
The plant is kept in a perpetual state of juvenile, rapid vegetative growth,directing photosynthetic products into leaf production rather than reproductive sinks like flowers and fruits.
(2) Optimization of Chemical Profiles:
• Polyphenols (Catechins) concentrated in the young leaves to protect against UV radiation and herbivores.
• Amino Acids(L- theanine) biosynthesised in the roots and translocated to activate shoots, peaking in young tender leaves.
• Caffeine synthesized in young tissues as a natural defence mechanism. Plucking harvested shoots at this stage captures peak flavor, aroma,and antioxidant properties.
(3) Foliage maintanence:
Plucking prevents the growth of top layer of young shoots into overhead thick canopy that shades lower leaves. Hence, lower leaves be able to perform photosynthesis.
Question 7
(a) Note on soil care/ manuring of tea plans after plantation of cuttings. 2
(b) Outline the biochemical changes that occur during the conversion of green tea leaves into black tea (enzymatic oxidation).
4
Answer:
(a) ***** ( From above discussion)
(b) The transformation relies heavily on polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity and involves four core phases:
Withering:
Moisture is removed from leaves (reducing water content to ~60%), causing cell membranes to become semi-permeable and initiating mild protein and carbohydrate breakdown.
Rolling/Maceration:
Disrupts cellular compartmentalization, physically breaking vacuoles and releasing substrate (catechins/flavonols) and the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO) into direct contact.
Fermentation (Oxidation):
Carried out at controlled temperatures. PPO catalyzes the oxidation of colorless catechins into complex, colored dimeric and polymeric compounds—specifically theaflavins (responsible for briskness and brightness) and thearubigins (responsible for depth of color and body).
Firing (Drying):
High heat is applied to denature PPO, halt oxidation entirely, and reduce final moisture content to under 3%, fixing the flavor profile.
Question 8
(a)Why is green tea non-oxidized, and how is this achieved biochemically at the processing level? 2
Answer:
Green tea is non-oxidized because endogenous enzymes (primarily polyphenol oxidases and peroxidases) are inactivated immediately after harvesting.
This is achieved through pan-firing (roasting) or steaming (heat treatment). By denaturing these enzymes instantly, catechins are preserved in their monomeric, unoxidized state, giving green tea its characteristic light color, grassy/vegetative aroma, and high antioxidant potency.
(b) Comment on pre-treatment of rooting medium , and sleeves preparation in tea nursery. 2+2=4
Pattern 2+2+2=6
Question 9
(a)State the primary biochemical reaction that occurs during tea fermentation/oxidation .
(b)What is the function of " Withering" in tea processing?
(c) Why are steep slope topographies preferred for tea plantations?
2+2+2=6
Answer
(a) Primary biochemical reactions during fermentation of tea leaves:
(i) Release of enzymes Polyphenol oxidase and Polyphenol peroxidase from broken cells.
(ii) Catechins oxidised to o-quinones.
(iii) Quinones condense and polymerise to:
• Theaflavins in early stage that gives brightness and briskness of black tea.
• As oxidation continues , Theaflavins condense to Thearubigins that gives depth, dark colour and strength of tea.
(iv) Proteins and fatty acids break down into volatile and aromatic compounds.
(b). *******Write from the topic discussed
Question 10
(a) How does green tea processing differ from black tea processing?
(b) What is " plucking table" , and why is it important in tea cultivation?
(c) What role does " drying" or"firing" play in finishing tea leaves?
2+2+2=6
Pattern 3+3=6
Question 11
(a) Explain the main differences between White, Oolong ,and Black tea based on processing steps.
(b) Explain vegetative propagation in tea cultivation. Why it is preferred over seed propagation ? 3+3=6
Question 12
(a) Explain the chemical breakdown that occurs during tea leaf oxidation and how it determines tea quality .
(b) Describe how climatic variations (rInfall distribution and day length) impact seasonal tea flushes and plant dormancy. 3+3=6
Answer
(a) Hints: Q9 (a)
(b)
Rainfall
( i) Evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year promotes continuous growth.
(ii) Prolonged droughts induce water stress, causing leaves to coarsen.
(iii) Excessive monsoon rains without sunshine reduce photosynthesis and shoot quality.
Day length and Temperature
In regions further from equator ,like, North East India, winter brings short days (<11.25 hours) and lower temperatures (<13°C ), causing tea bushes to enter winter dormancy.
Flushes:
When warm temperature and daylight return in spring, bushes produce distinct growth surges called " flushes" i.e., first flush; Second flush, etc., each yielding distinct tea flavor profiles.
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Sources: Old corrugated containers, mixed papers, and de- inked pulp collected through both domestic and imported channels.
(ii) Rest 30% uses virgin raw materials.
Wood - Based Fibres:
Sources:
Hardwoods: Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Leucaena, and Poplar are heavily utilised to supply short cellulose fibres for smoothness and formation.
Bamboo: A traditional and highly sustainable Indian pulping material.
Agricultural Crops Residue
Bagasse: The fibrous residue left after sugarcane juice extraction.
Straw and Grasses: Wheat straw, rice straw and Sabai grass.
(A) Mechanical Pulping: This method consists in grinding raw material against an abrasive surface to defibre the raw material/ softwood without any lignin dissolution.World wide production: 33Mt, 1989.
(i)Stone Groundwood (SGW):Presses whole debarked logs directly against rotating metal disc refiners to separate the fibres.
(ii)Refiner Mechanical Pulp (RMP) : Feeds wood chips through rotating metal disc refiners to separate the fibres.
(iii)Thermomechanical Pulp ( TMP): Uses high temperature steam to soften wood chips before they enter the disc refiners.
(iv)Chemi- Thermomechanical Pulp (CTMP): Applies a mild chemical pre- treatment and steam to soften wood components before mechanical refining.
(B) Chemical Pulping: This method seperates the fibres from the raw materials by making soluble all the non- cellulosic components in a cooking liquor at high temperature and pressure. World wide production:122 Mt (90% sulphate or kraft,20% bisulphate).
(i) Kraft Process: Sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide (white liquor) are used to break down lignin.
(ii) Sulfite Process: In this method sulfurous acid and bisulfites used under acidic to neutral conditions to dissolve lignin.
(iii) Soda Process : Only sodium hydroxide is used when raw materials are hardwoods and straw.
(C) Chemi- mechanical Pulping: A chemical pre- treatment of the raw material is done before a mechanical treatment to liberate fibres. World wide production 7.5 Mt, 1989.
(i) Chemical Pre-treatment: Wood chips are soaked or cooked with sodium sulfate or alkaline peroxide at low temperature and mild pressure to partially dissolve and soften lignin.
(ii) Mechanical Refining: The treated chips pass through mechanical disc refiners,where rotating plates grind and tear the wood apart into usable fibres.
Industrial paper making is a continuous industrial workflow which converts cellulose pulp into finished paper sheets through the following steps:
Raw material preparation:
Raw materials like wood pulp or recycled paper are sorted, cleaned , and fed into the bpulping system.
Pulping
(i) Raw materials are mixed with water and broken down into fibres using high consistency pulpers at 14-18% consistency.
(ii) Thus a slurry - like mixture is formed.
Cleaning & Screening
Contaminants ( plastics, staples, sand) are removed through pressure screens and centrifugal cleaners.
Bleaching
In this process either residual lignin is removed or modified by using multi- stage processes like Elemental Chlorine Free ( ECF) or Totally Chlorine Free ( TCF) sequence bleaching to dissolve lignin without weakening cellulose fibres.
Refining
Fibres are treated in disc refiners to develop bonding strength and achive target fareness.
Formation of Sheet
(i)The pulp is then spread evenly across a moving mesh screen of a large paper machine to drain away water and fibres to bond together.
(ii) Refined stock is roughly 99% water and 1% fiber when it reaches the wire.
(iii) Gravity and vaccum drainage pull water through the mesh while cellulose fibres interlock into a continuous web.
Pressing
The newly formed sheet passes through 2 to 4 press nips between rolls and absorbent felts to remove excess water and enhance density.
Drying
At 90° C to 110 °C dryer cylinders ( 30 to 60 cylinders per section) steam heated to remove 92 to 96 % moisture content resulting in a sturdy , dry sheet of paper.
Calendering
The sheet passes between calender rolls under controlled pressure, to density surface, thickness and smoothness.
Cutting & Finishing
(i) The finished sheet winds onto parent reels of 2.5 m to 3.5 m diameter and 5 to 20 tonnes.
(ii) Slitter- reminders cut the parent reel into smaller customer sheets.
(iii) Final reels are wrapped,palletised and shipped.
ECONOMIC BOTANY & RUBBER INDUSTRY
Common name: Para rubber tree
Scientific name: Haevia brasiliensis Muell-Arg
Family: Euphorbiaceae
The first rubber plantations in India were set up in 1895 on the hill slopes of Kerala. However, rubber cultivation on a commercial scale was introduced in 1902. Kerala is the largest producer (90% of India's rubber production) of natural rubber in India.Tripura's position is just behind the Kerala. India is the third largest producer and the fourth - largest consumer of natural rubber in the world. Rubber is cultivated in 16 states of India.
Rubber tree generally needs 6-7 years of maturity for collecting latex. Rubber tappers can collect latex nearly aboutvnext 24-26 years. Generally 450-500 trees plant in one hactare.
The Rubber Board is a statutory body established byvthe Government of India under Rubber Act 1947.
(i) Deep lateritic fertile soil with pH 4.5--6.0.
(ii) Rainfall : 2000~4500 mm
(iii) Temperature: 25° C to 34°C
(iv) Elevation between 300-450 meters above the sea level on hill slopes.
Season
June-July is optimum for cultivation.
Method of Propagation
Propagated by green budding, brown budding and crown budding.
Nursery
(i) Bed Size: 60-120 cm width , length convenient .
(ii) Spacing:
Seedling stumps-- 24x23 cm, 30 x 30 cm and 34 x 20 cm
Budded stumps -- 30 x 30 cm
Stump budding -- 60 x60 cm
Bud wood nursery -- 60 x 90 cm or 60 x120 cm
(iii) Manuring:
(a) Basal- 2.5 t/ ha of FYM and 350 kg/ ha of Rock Phosphate
(b) 1.5-2 months after planting -- 10:10:4:1.5 NPKMg mixture -2500kg/ ha
(c) 3-3.5 months- Urea @ 550 kg/ ha
Planting
Pit size: 1m3 , filled up with top soil and compost.
(i) Budded plants
Spacing( m) Plants/ha
Hilly areas-- 6.7x 3.4 445
Plains-- 4.9 x 4.9. 420
(ii) Seedlings
Hilly areas-- 6.1 x 3.0 539
Plains-- 4.6x 4.6 479
In situation sowing: Germinated seeds in pits. Healthy seedlings retained, rest removed.
Manuring
( i) Pre- tapping stage:
Apply 12 kg of compost or FYM and 120 g Rock Phosphate/pit before planting.
(ii) Apply 10:10:4:1.5 NPKMg as per following schedule :
Age ( months). Period. Quantity/plant
3. Sept/Oct. 225 g
9. Apr/ May. 445 g
15. Sept/Oct. 450 g
21. Apr/ May. 450 g
27. Sept/Oct. 550 g
33. Apr/ May. 550 g
39. Sept/ Oct. 450 g
(iii) 400 kg of mixture/ ha ; Time : Apr/ May and Sept/ Oct ( twice/ annum) from 5th year till the tree is ready for tapping.
(iv) Mature tree under tapping-- NPK 10:10:10 @ 900g/ plant or 300kg/ ha twice/annum. Add Magnesium sulphate @20 kg/ 100 kg mixture of there is Mg deficiency.
Aftercultivation: Growing of cover crops, incorporation of cover crops and weefing are important.
Plant protection:
Rubber treesvare succeptible to scale insect, Mealy bugs, Termite, Mites and diseases like abnormal leaf fall, secondary leaf fall, powdery mildew ,etc. These are prevented chemically and proper and timely observation is essential.
Yield: 375 kg/ ha from seedling trees, 800--1000 kg/ ha from budding trees.
(Source: Arasu Rubber Corporation of Tamil Nadu Rubber Board, Government of India)
Tapping means to cut the bark of the rubber tree to harvest latex.
First tapping stage:
(i) When the circumference of the tree is 50 cm at a height of 1 mt from the ground.
(ii) Age: 5 years
Tapping Method
(i) Take a metal ribbon attached to a wooden lath of 2.10 m long.This ribbon is at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
(ii) Roll the ribbon round the tree.
(iii) With an awl, make a cut along the ribbon.
(iv) The beginning and the end of the cut must be on the same vertical line.
(v) Make a vertical channel from the lower edge of the cut by the awl.
(vi) Make the cut and channel deep with a gouge by pushing it several times without damaging the cambium.
(vii) Depth of the cut- 4.5 mm and the length of the channel - 25 cm.
(viii) Put a gutter at the lower end of the channel and put a latex cup below the gutter and tie to the tree.
Harvesting the latex
(i) Time: Early morning
(ii) Take coagulated latex from the cut first, the take out a little piece of bark of 1.5 mm thick without hampering the cambium.
(iii) The latex flows along the cut , down the channel and through the gutter drops into the latex cup.
(iv) After 4 hours collect latex from the cup, 2 days afterwards,clean out the cup.
Tapping is prohibited for 2 months during dry season. After 7 years new cut is done at the height of 1.5 m from the ground level. The harvesting is done 28 years continuously.
(Source: Food and Agriculture Organization https://wwe.fao.org)
Ribbed Smoked Sheet (RSS)
Image: Air Drying of RSS of Rubber
Step 1: Latex Collection & Straining
Step 2: Standardization/ Bulking
Step3: Coagulation
Step 4: Rolling and Ribbing
Step5: Air Drying
Step 6: Smoking and drying in the smokehouse
Step1
Latex Collection
(i) Cleaned coconut shells or plastic/ TPNR (Thermoplastic Natural Rubber) cups are used to collect latex from rubber tree.
(ii) Contaminants like tree bark, sand particles and rain water are completely avoided during latex collection.
(iii) To prevent pre- coagulation of latex, anti- coagulants like ,1% Ammonia solution or 3% Sodium sulphite is added into the latex in the field.
Straining
Preliminary straining is done through a sieve fitted with Monel Gauge of 40-50 mesh or stainless steel mesh. ( Note: Brass mesh is harmful since minute trace of copper affects the quality of rubber)
Step 2
Standardization
(i) Clean and pure water is added to Dry Rubber Content ( DRC) for standardization prior to addition of acid for coagulation.
(ii) The recommended standard DRC value is 12.5% dilution.
(iii) Dilution water is strained off through a fine cloth.
Purpose of Dilution:
It helps faster setting of dirt, improve sheet clarity , bringing down viscosity of latex which helps in evenly distribution of acids.
Restraining as in step 1 is reperformed to remove any impurities added to latex during standardization process.
Step 3
Coagulation
(i) 1% Formic acid or Acetic acid is added into coagulation pans or DLC tank filled with diluted latex.
(ii) For uniform mixing of latex and acid a wooden plate or an aluminium sheet is used and resulting forth is skimmed off by a piece of smooth board or aluminum or galvanized iron sheet as a skimmer to prevent pitting on the sheet surface.
(iii) Place the coagulation pans or DLC tanks horizontal position by proper covering
Step 4
Rolling & Ribbing
(i) After draining out serum , the coagulum is hand pressed on a clean horizontal table or aluminum plate.
(ii) Next the hand pressed coagulum is pressed through two roll mills (2-3 times) for even thickness and to wash out the serum substances.
(iii) Then the sheet is pressed through a marking ( dimond ) roller to make the thickness 3.2 mm.
(iv) The rollers must be fitted with a water spray to wash off serum .
Step 5
Air drying
The freshly milled rubber sheets are allowed to drip-dry in open air by hanging vertically on wooden racks or rails in well ventilated, shaded area for 4-5 hours for excess surface water drip off.
Step 6
Smoking & Drying
( i) Move the drained sheets into a wood- fired smoke House for 4-7 days.
(ii) The starting temperature is 40°C to 50°C and raising upto 55°C to 60°C.
At last , finished dry sheets are classied into RSS 1 to RSS 5 based on colour, cleanliness and absence of air bubbles or burnt spots.
What is "Green Book"?
The "International Standards of Quality and Packing for Natural Rubber Grades " , is commonly known as Green Book, published in June 1968, under the direction of the Fourth International Rubber Quality and Packing Conference held in Brussels, Belgium.
What are the different Grades of RSS ?
There are five grades of RSS ( RSS 1 to RSS5 ) on the basis of visual appearance, cleanliness, colour consistency, tolerance levels, and the absence of impurities.
RSS 1
(i) The best grade among the five.
(ii) Dry, clean, strong, evenly smoked.
(iii) Free from blemishes, specks, rust, blisters, sand, and foreign matter.
(iv) Used for medical, pharmaceutical,and engineering appliances.
RSS 2
(i) Have minor imperfections.
(ii) Cleanliness high.
(iii) Colour standard - uniform.
RSS 3
(i) The most widely traded.
(ii) Quality: balanced; cost - efficient,and strong.
(iii) Natural imperfections: minor; mechanical properties: strong.
(iv) Used for radial tyres.
RSS 4
(i) Contains more visible stains and bubbles.
(ii) Used in automobile tyres and retreading materials.
RSS 5
(i) Have highest lavel of impurities.
After grading RSS are pressed into bales using hydraulic machines.
How RSS packed and stored?
Packing
(i) For standard export baling , sheets are compressed into cubes of 60 cm x 60 cm , weight of ~ 111.11 kg.
(ii) Bales are coted with a white mixture of kerosene and calcium carbonate to prevent sticking to each other.
Or,
Folded sheets are vaccum- packed in plastic shrink wrap.
Storing
(i) RSS stored in a cool, dry place at 25°C to 25°C and 50% to 60% moisture content to prevent mold and surface stickness.
(ii) Temperature above 38°C accelerates oxidation, causing hardness and reduction of elasticity.
( iii) Warehousees must be well ventilated and protected from sunlight.
What are TSR or Block Rubber?
Technically Specified Rubber( TSR) or Block Rubber is a processed natural rubber graded by precise chemical and physical standards rather than visual inspection.
What is ISNR?
In India, TSR ( Technically Specified Rubber) is marketed as ISNR ( Indian Standard Natural Rubber) , governed by BSI specificans.
What is Crepe Rubber?
The wrinkled sufaced rubber processed by repeated pressing through heavy rolling mills from either fresh latex or field coagulum is called Crepe Rubber .
Use: To make footwear sole, where it's texture aids in grip and durability.
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Over Exploitation of Water : Causes; consequences & Solutolions
The process of precipitation replenishing the ground water supply is called recharge.This ground water remains in a constant motion. About 5.97 quintillion gallon of ground water reside in the upper 2 km of earth's surface.
Ground water can be extracted through Wells or bubbles up naturally through a spring and discharged in lakes or rivers to maintain the level of surface water. It is used for drinking, agriculture and recently groundwater levels have fallen in faster rate due to the diversion of above ground water, excessive extraction of water for irrigation and other uses.
Photograph: Commelina benghalensis
Causes of over-exploitation:
(i) World population is ever-increasing, hence pressure on agriculture is continuing. More than 75% of fresh water is used in agriculture
(ii)IIlicit collection of water through illegal wells.
(iii) Extraction of water by machines and pumps.
Consequences :
Depletion of ground water results in the increase of pumping cost, dry up of wells and rivers, intrusion of saline water in the coastal aquifers.
Solution
Use of waste water and ponding of excess river flows . Efficient operation on irrigation system, sustainable coservation of soil and water, changes of cropping pattern,etc are the important measures to replenishment of the ground water.
Plants : Medicinal value & Ethnobotanical Importance
Index
•Commelina benghalensis , Kansira/ Puti ghass
Family : Commelinaceae
• Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis, Tita Basak
Family: Acanthaceae
Botanical Description
A spreading annual herb.
Leaves simple, ovate,± 80 x 30 mm, shiny, pale apple- green , obtuse to acute, base abruptly narrowed into a sheathing petiole beset with long bristle at the base.
Inflorescence bifid cyme enclosed by funnel shaped or heart shaped 1-1.5 cm spathe. Upper cyme bears 1-3 chasmogamous flowers; lower cyme has 1-2 smaller flowers.
Sepals 3, green; Petals 3 , deep ink-blue or violet-blue; stamens 6 but only 3 fertile, carpels (3), syncarpous, 3-celled; style 1,slender; stigma trilobed.
Fruit Capsule
Flrs & Fr : July to December
Medicinal use:
• Tripuri traditional healers administer fresh leaf juice in ear as drops to soothe earaches, internal ear infection or relieve fluid buildup.
( Academia.edu ; https://www.academia.edu).
• In Tripura extract or decoction of the whole plant is given orally to stimulate liver function and to detoxification of jaundice suffering people. (https://www.researchgate.net )
• Fine leaf paste / poultice are used externally over burn, skin rashes, and painful boils by Tripuri traditional healers.
• Root decoction/ concentrated liquid extract made by boiling is used to relief stomach disorders , diarrhoea,etc.
Chopped, crushed, or mashed hard roots are boiled or simmer on low heat for 10-30 min to make the decoction.
• In Madagascar leaf decoction is used to treat malaria. ( https://pza.sanbi.org)
• To reduce high blood pressure: Zulu people made a decoction of leaf and fleshy stem , the resulted liquid is strained and drunk in smaller quantities over a period of time to manage high blood pressure.(https://pza.sanbi.org)
• The Philippine people use juice or liquid extracted from the flowering spathe or fresh bruised parts to bath eye to relieve information, irrigation and conjunctivitis.
( https://pza.sanbi.org)
• For urethral pain & Strangury : The mucilge extract of whole plant or decoction is used as emollient/ ointment suppository or soothing wash to ease internal irritation/ pain of urethral and Strangury( difficult urination). https://tropical.theferns.info; Useful Tropical Plants.
Preventive health as Dietary Vegetable
Tender leaf and shoot is used as vegetable / curry to provide laxative benefits, prevent digestive issue, soothe internal inflammation.
Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis ( Roxb. ex. Hardw) Mabb
Photograph: Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis
Botanical Description :
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus ( Roxb.ex Hardw) Mabb. in Manilal.Bot & Hist. Hort.Malab: 83.1980; Justicia thyrsiformis Roxb ex Hardw.In Asiat.Res.6:349:1799 ; Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Roxb) Nees. In Wall , Pl. Asiat. Tar,3:99.1832; C.B .Clarke .In Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4:512:1884; Kanjilal et.al; Fl.Assam 1939.
Shrubs upto 2-3 mt high; stem erect, long, glabrous.
Leaves :13 - 24 x 7-9 cm, elliptic, lanceolate, acute; lateral nerves 9-10 pairs.
Inflorescence :10-12 x 4-5 cm, terminal, pubscent ; bracts 3, 1.3- 1.4 cm, linear, bracteoles absent.
Calyx densely pubscent,1-1.2 cm; Corolla Orange brown, 2.4-2.4 cm, tubular closely villous ; stamens 2, exerted, glabrous, gynoecium - pinkish white; 2.5-2.6 cm ; ovary glabrous.
Seed long, sub- tetragonous, compressed,thin,ca. 3.8 cm.
Flrs : January - March ; Fr : March - May
Medicinal uses:
• In Tripura tribal healers combined leaf extract with ginger and licorice for cough syrups . ( Debbarma M,2017)
• Used to treat Soothing chest complaints . ( Debbarma M,2017)
•Leaf poultices applied on insect bites and small wounds.( Debbarma M,2017)
• Inflorescence boiled or baked with dried fish, meat, and eaten as chutney; used to relieve stomach ache.( Barthkur SK, 2016)
• Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus is brewed into a mild bitter tea believed to relieve " Kapha imbalance " in rainy season. (Debbarma, M 2017)
• The leaf juice is taken as syrups for cough, cold , and bronchial asthma. ( Debbarma M 2017)
• Decoction of leaves is used to treat fever by Manipuri Community of Barak Valley, Assam,(Choudhary et.al. , 2010)
• Whole plant is used in fever, skin diseases, abdominal tumour,chronic bronchitis,painful swellings, neuralgia, scabies, malaria and whooping cough.( Barthakur SK, 2016)
•Ash of fruit and leaf in fever by Jaiantia tribe of Meghalaya and Karbi tribe of Assam (Barthakur SK ,2016; Patwari ,1992)
• Flower used as antidot to pox, prevents skin diseases like scabies, sore ; used in jaundice. ( Barthkur SK,2016; Khanikar,2005)
Reference
Barthakur S.K, Datta Barnali, Sarma J, Diversity and Ethnobotany of the genus Phlogacanthus Nees in Assam,India , IJLSSR ,vol2,issue 4, July 2016, : 4472-447
Chaudhary MD, Bawari M, Singh LS : Some antipyretic ethnobotanical plants of Manipuri Community of Barak Valley,Assam, India, Ethnobotanical leafl.2010: 14:21-28
Debbarma Maria, Nazir A Pala, Mukesh Kumar, Rainer W. Bussmann , Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plants in Tribals of Tripura in North East India : Afr. J Tradit Complement Altern Med.2017 Jun , 5; 14(4):156-168
Khanikar G(2005) in: Sahajlavya Bandarabar Gun, 7th ed(Revised) Guwahati,India, Puthitirtha Prakasan p.34
Manabendra DC, Meenakshi B,
Patwari B.(1992) In: A glossary of medicinal plants of Assam and Meghalaya, 1st ed. Guwahati, India,M.N.Printers ,P.98.
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